Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System

Note: Figure shows the change in the percent of mothers and fathers with at least one child age 6 to 17 that report being not in the labor force with caregiving as their primary activity, for the given month relative to the same calendar month in 2019. Key identifies bars in order from left to right.

Source: Authors’ estimates from publicly available microdata to the Current Population Survey.

Note: Figure shows the percent of public school students in grades K to 12 that were estimated to be in districts that were fully remote, fully in-person, or in districts where a choice was provided or a hybrid approach was used.

Source: Authors’ estimates from data provided by the American Enterprise Institute’s Return To Learn Tracker.

Note: The black line in the figure shows the increase in the fraction of the population age 16 and older that reported being out of the labor force with caregiving as their primary activity, for the listed calendar month relative to the same month in 2019. The white, dark blue, and orange bars show the amount of the total change in caregiving attributable to particular groups; the three colored bars sum to the black line.

Source: Authors’ estimates from publicly available microdata to the Current Population Survey.

Note: The blue line in the figures show, for women age 25 to 54, the gaps between the labor force participation rates and employment-to-population ratios for mothers with at least one child age 6 to 17 relative to women without children, for the given month relative to the average of the same month in 2018 and 2019. The red line shows the difference after adjusting for observable characteristics as listed in the text; it plots the coefficients from a linear probability regression of labor force participation or employment on indicator variables for the months listed in the figure interacted with an indicator for having a child age 6 to 17, using the sample of all women age 25 to 54 in 2018 to 2021. See text for more details.

Source: Authors’ estimates from publicly available microdata to the Current Population Survey.

Note: The blue line in the figures show, for women age 25 to 54, the gaps between the labor force participation rates and employment-to-population ratios for mothers with at least one child age 6 to 17 relative to women without children, for the given month relative to the average of the same month in 2018 and 2019. The red line shows the difference after adjusting for observable characteristics as listed in the text; it plots the coefficients from a linear probability regression of labor force participation or employment on indicator variables for the months listed in the figure interacted with an indicator for having a child age 6 to 17, using the sample of all women age 25 to 54 in 2018 to 2021. See text for more details.

Source: Authors’ estimates from publicly available microdata to the Current Population Survey.

Note: Key identifies bars in order from left to right.

Source: Authors’ estimates from publicly available microdata to the Current Population Survey.

Note: This figure shows the change in the percent of mothers age 25 to 54 with at least one child between the ages of 6 and 17 and with the listed characteristics that report being not in the labor force with caregiving as their primary activity, for the given quarter relative to the same quarter in 2019. (Specifically, we calculate the deviation for each calendar month relative to the same calendar month in 2019, and then average for each quarter.) Key identifies bars in order from left to right.

Source: Authors’ estimates from publicly available microdata to the Current Population Survey.

Note: Figure shows the percent of public school students in grades K to 12 that were estimated to be in districts that were fully remote, fully in-person, or in districts where a choice was provided or a hybrid approach was used. Predominantly white districts are those where at least 50 percent of students are white; predominantly minority districts are all other districts.

Source: Authors’ estimates from data provided by the American Enterprise Institute’s Return To Learn Tracker.